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How jumping spiders reveal an entire secret world of colors. Let BetterHelp connect you to a therapist who can support you - all from the comfort of your own home. Visit https://betterhelp.com/veritasium and enjoy a special discount on your first month. A massive thank you to everyone at Day’s Edge Productions for making this documentary happen. Check them out at https://daysedge.com/. You can watch the full-length documentary “The World According to Jumping Spiders” on Curiosity Stream - coming soon. ▀▀▀ Special thanks to our Patreon supporters! Join the community to help us keep our videos free, forever: https://ve42.co/PatreonDE Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Bruce, Burt Humburg, Chris Harper, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, I. H., John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Martin, Matthias Wrobel, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, Toni, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV Production by Day's Edge fully funded by National Science Foundation (Grant #IOS 1831767) Featuring: Dr. Nathan Morehouse (University of Cincinnati); Olivia Harris (University of Cincinnati), Dr. Megan Porter (University of Hawaii); Dr. Lisa Taylor (University of Florida); Dr. Wayne Maddison (University of British Columbia); and Dr. Emma Alexander (Northwestern University) ▀▀▀ Directed by Neil Losin Written by Neil Losin Edited by Neil Losin, Andy Laub, and Alan Saunders Animated by Root House Studio and David Hutchinson Filmed by Neil Losin, Nate Dappen, Alex Wiles, Andy Laub, and Barend van der Watt Produced by Day’s Edge Productions Repurposed for YouTube by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, Petr Lebedev, Peter Nelson, Trenton Oliver, Emily Zhang, Giovanna Utichi, Rob Beasley Spence, Emily Taylor, and Gregor Čavlović Thumbnail contributions by Ren Hurley and Peter Sheppard Video/photos supplied by Day’s Edge Productions and Storyblocks Music by Adrian Younge, PBS, Epidemic Sound, and Jonny Hyman

The mistakes of Amelia Earhart’s final flight, and the physics that could have saved her. Use code VERITASIUM to get 50% off your 1st club crate when you join a club for kids aged 3+ or go to https://kiwico.com/veritasium 00:00 Amelia Earhart’s fatal flight 01:52 How Earhart prepared for her final mission 03:33 Who was Amelia Earhart? 05:36 The flight plan 07:13 How celestial navigation works 09:16 Invention of radio technology 12:02 Radio waves explained 22:44 Earhart makes her critical decision 24:55 Communication failures 28:30 “Gas is running low” 31:39 Her desperate final message 33:01 The small detail that could have saved her Special thanks to Clifford Heath for his help putting together the radio demo, and the folks at the Victorian ARDF group for connecting us. Thank you to Brian Harrison and Michael Murphy with the AWA Communication Technologies Museum for their assistance with early research. Thank you to Peter Bevelacqua over at Antenna Theory for help filling in some missing details. Sharp-eyed viewers might notice there doesn't seem to be a loop antenna in the flight simulation shots. It sadly wasn't included in the simulator's model of Earhart's Electra, but it features prominently in old photos. Join us on Patreon for early access videos, bonus content, and to support Veritasium! https://ve42.co/PatreonDE Patrons: Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, Greg Scopel, I. H., John H. Austin, Jr., Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Kirill Shore, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Reed Spilmann, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, TTST, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, gpoly, john kiehl, meg noah, wolfee If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV References: https://ve42.co/RefsEarhart Directed by Sulli Yost and Derek Muller Written by Sulli Yost and Derek Muller Edited by Peter Nelson Animated by David Szakaly, Fabio Albertelli, Maria Gusakovich, Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, Mohamed Alhaj Illustrations by Jakub Misiek, Emma Wright Filmed by Derek Muller and Bernard Lau Additional Research by Gabriel Bean, Geeta Produced by Sulli Yost, Derek Muller, Rob Beasley Spence, Emily Lazard, Tori Brittain, Umar Ijaz Thumbnail contributions by Peter Sheppard, Ren Hurley Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Story Blocks Music from Epidemic Sound and Johnny Hyman

Audio illusions show us that hearing is about more than just sensing frequency. Which ones trick you every time? Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial and get 20% off an annual premium subscription. If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically. https://snatoms.com/ ▀▀▀ A big thank you to Titus Grenyer over at Pep Organ for showing us around the Sydney Town Hall Organ, to Dr. Diana Deutsch for providing her illusions and insight into the field, to Casey Connor for advice on building sound illusions, and to Dr. Michael Bach for providing the motion-bounce illusion. Pep organ: https://ve42.co/y Casey Connor’s Psychoacoustics: https://ve42.co/z ▀▀▀ References: https://ve42.co/AudioIllusionsRefs Images & Video: Aircraft Detection before radar, 1917-1940 - https://ve42.co/e Women’s Auxiliary Air Force operator Denise Miley - https://ve42.co/f Daventry Experiment Van, operated by “Jock” Herd - https://ve42.co/g Perfect fifth - https://ve42.co/h Denge acoustic mirrors - The original uploader was Jksolomon at English Wikipedia. - https://ve42.co/q Denge sound mirrors | Sound Mirrors https://ve42.co/u Mayer telescope in 1880, US patent number 224199. NAE Website - Acoustic Source Localization Techniques and Their Applications https://ve42.co/s Professor Mayer’s Topophone - https://ve42.co/t AR_Speaker_v12 - Download Free 3D model by steveMarketscale [6ca6a0a] - Sketchfab https://ve42.co/v Ear Phenotypes https://ve42.co/x ▀▀▀ Special thanks to our Patreon supporters: Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Bruce, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, I. H., John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, TTST, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee ▀▀▀ Directed by Sulli Yost and Derek Muller Hosted by Derek Muller Written by Sulli Yost and Derek Muller Edited by Jack Saxon and Peter Nelson Animated by Fabio Albertelli, David Szakaly, and Ivy Tello Illustrations by Jakub Misiek Filmed by Derek Muller Produced by Sulli Yost, Derek Muller, Rob Beasley Spence, Emily Lazard, Tori Brittain, Emily Zhang, Petr Lebedev, Gregor Čavlović, and Gabe Bean Thumbnail contributions by Peter Sheppard and Ren Hurley Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Storyblocks, and Envato Music from GarageBand, Virtual Piano, and Epidemic Sound

Democracy might be mathematically impossible – here’s why. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial and get 20% off an annual premium subscription. If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically. https://snatoms.com/ ▀▀▀ Massive thanks to Prof. Eric Maskin for helping with the script. Thanks to Chris Dong for inspiring this video. Massive thanks to Latif Nasser for being part of this video. Massive thanks to Curtis Gilberts, and to Radiolab -- listen to their great episode on voting systems here https://radiolab.org/podcast/tweak-vote ▀▀▀ A few great proofs of Arrow’s impossibility theorem: Yu, N. N. (2012). A one-shot proof of Arrow's impossibility theorem. Economic Theory, 523-525.- https://ve42.co/Yu2012 Geanakoplos, J. (2005). Three brief proofs of Arrow’s impossibility theorem. Economic Theory, 26(1), 211-215. - https://ve42.co/Geanakoplos2005 References: Arrow, K. J. (2012). Social choice and individual values (Vol. 12). Yale university press. - https://ve42.co/Arrow2012 Arrow, K. J. (1950). A Difficulty in the Concept of Social Welfare. Journal of Political Economy - https://ve42.co/Arrow1950 Black, D. (1948). On the rationale of group decision-making. Journal of political economy, 56(1), 23-34. - https://ve42.co/Black1948 Black, D. (1969). On Arrow's impossibility theorem. The Journal of Law and Economics, 12(2), 227-248. - https://ve42.co/Arrow1969 Maskin, E., & Sen, A. (2014). The Arrow impossibility theorem. Columbia University Press. - https://ve42.co/Maskin2014 Gehrlein, W. V., & Valognes, F. (2001). Condorcet efficiency: A preference for indifference. Social Choice and Welfare - https://ve42.co/Gehrlein2001 Dardanoni, V. (2001). A pedagogical proof of Arrow's Impossibility Theorem. Social Choice and Welfare, 18(1), 107-112. - https://ve42.co/Dardanoni2001 McCune, D., & Wilson, J. (2023). Ranked-choice voting and the spoiler effect. Public Choice, 196(1), 19-50. - https://ve42.co/McCune2023 Santucci, J. (2021). Variants of ranked-choice voting from a strategic perspective. Politics and Governance, 9(2), 344-353. - https://ve42.co/Santucci2021 Kaminski, M. M. (2018). Spoiler effects in proportional representation systems: evidence from eight Polish parliamentary elections, 1991–2015. Public Choice, 176(3), 441-460. - https://ve42.co/Kaminski2018 Brams, S. J., & Fishburn, P. C. (1978). Approval voting. American Political Science Review, 72(3), 831-847. - https://ve42.co/Brams1978 Other references and election results - https://ve42.co/IODRefs Images & Video: Minneapolis 2013 Debate Images: https://ve42.co/Minn2013Debate 4 Images from this article: https://ve42.co/MinnDebateMPR Arrow Nobel Prize Image from NYT Article: https://ve42.co/ArrowNYT ▀▀▀ Special thanks to our Patreon supporters: Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Bruce, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, I. H., Jack Cuprill, John H. Austin, Jr., Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, TTST, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, gpoly, john kiehl, meg noah, wolfee ▀▀▀ Directed by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller Written by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller Edited by Trenton Oliver Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek and Ivy Tello Filmed by Derek Muller Additional Research by Gabriel Bean Produced by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, Gabriel Bean, Rob Beasley Spence, Emily Lazard, Luke Lewis Thumbnail contributions by Jakub Misiek, Ren Hurley, Peter Sheppard Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images Music from Epidemic Sound

The blue LED was supposed to be impossible—until a young engineer proposed a moonshot idea. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription. If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV Huge thanks to the UC Santa Barbara Materials Dept for taking us around, and to Álvaro Bermejillo Seco for reviewing the science. These sources were also especially helpful: Nobel Prize Biography - Shuji Nakamura - https://ve42.co/NakamuraNobel Johnstone, B. (2015). Brilliant!. Prometheus Books. - https://ve42.co/Johnstone2015 Nakamura, S., Pearton, S., & Fasol, G. (2010). The Blue Laser Diode: The Complete Story. Springer. - https://ve42.co/Nakamura2010 ▀▀▀ References: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O8M2z2hIbag https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGUteH93xNo https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=idwKHQEw78g https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoTALRhAqWc Touchstone, L. A. (2022). Nick Holonyak Jr. University of Illinois. - https://ve42.co/Touchstone2022 Perry, T. S. (1995). The Unsung Inventor. IEEE Spectrum. - https://ve42.co/Perry1995 Chabay, R. & Sherwood, B. (2011). Matter & interactions (4th ed.), S2: Semiconductors. Wiley. - https://ve42.co/ChabaySherwood How MOCVD Works via Aixtron - https://ve42.co/MOCVD Vangala, S. R., et al. (2019). Epitaxial growth of ZnSe on GaAs. Journal of Crystal Growth. - https://ve42.co/Vangala2019 Nakamura, S. (1991). GaN Growth Using GaN Buffer Layer. JJAP. - https://ve42.co/Nakamura3rd1991 Amano, H., et al. (1989). P-Type Conduction in Mg-Doped GaN w/ LEEBI. JJAP. - https://ve42.co/Amano1989 Huang, M., et al. (2021). Defects in Mg–H‐Codoped GaN. Physica Status Solidi. - https://ve42.co/Huang2021 Schubert, E. F. (2006). Light Emitting Diodes, Ch 4: LED basics. Cambridge University Press. - https://ve42.co/RPI-LEDs Kitada, C. (2001). Blue About Japan. Japan Inc. - https://ve42.co/Kitada2001 Whitaker, T. (2002). Nakamura loses Nichia patent battle. Optics.org. - https://ve42.co/NichiaSales3 Pirates Osaka. (2014). Nakamura awarded Nobel Prize in Physics. Hatena Blog. - https://ve42.co/NichiaSales1 Growth Bozu via Twitter. - https://ve42.co/NichiaSales2 Rose, J. (2014). Blue LEDs – Filling the world with new light. The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. - https://ve42.co/Rose2014 Pattison, P. M., et al. (2017). LED lighting efficacy. Comptes Rendus Physique. - https://ve42.co/Pattison2017 Electricity pricing via EIA - https://ve42.co/ElectricityPricing Lane, K., et al. (2023). Lighting. IEA. - https://ve42.co/LightingIEA LED Footprint via The Climate Group - https://ve42.co/ClimateGroupLED Nichia’s History via Nichia - https://ve42.co/NichiaHistory Shuji Nakamura via Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/NakamuraWiki Images & Video: Lighting the World via UCTVInsight on YouTube - https://ve42.co/UCTVep2 & https://ve42.co/UCTVep3 Palo Alto Times 1971 Article via Newspapers.com - https://ve42.co/Newspapers Nick Holonyak, Jr. and the LED via UIUC on YouTube - https://ve42.co/HolonyakIllinois The Original Blue LED via Science History Institute on YouTube - https://ve42.co/OGBlueLED Maxfield, M. (2022). Compound Semiconductors. EE Journal. - https://ve42.co/Maxfield2022 M. Stutzmann, et al. (2001). Playing with Polarity. pss (b). - https://ve42.co/Stutzman2001 Isamu Akasaki in 1995 via Andrey Nikolaev on YouTube - https://ve42.co/AsakiNikolaev Pioneer TX-610 Stereo Tuner via Ian Marino on YouTube - https://ve42.co/StereoMarino Shuji Nakamura via EPO on YouTube - https://ve42.co/NakamuraEPO Nichia Campus via Nichia on LinkedIn - https://ve42.co/NichiaHQ Nichia via TDElektronik on YouTube - https://ve42.co/NichiaTDE Violeds Sterilization of COVID-19 via Seoul Viosys - https://ve42.co/SterilizationUV ▀▀▀ Special thanks to our Patreon supporters: Chris Harper, Max Paladino, Balkrishna Heroor, Adam Foreman, Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, KeyWestr, TTST, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, David Johnston, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi ▀▀▀ Directed by Emily Zhang Written by Emily Zhang, Ricky Nathvani, and Derek Muller Edited by Trenton Oliver Illustrated by Jakub Misiek Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Mike Radjabov, David Szakaly, Ivy Tello, and Alondra Vitae Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno, and Trenton Oliver Additional research by Gregor Čavlović Produced by Emily Zhang, Han Evans, Gregor Čavlović, and Derek Muller Thumbnail by Ren Hurley Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5 Music from Epidemic Sound

How do QR codes work? The checkerboard patterns taking over the world, demystified. Go to https://Saily.com/veritasium and use the code ‘veritasium’ to get an exclusive 15% off your first purchase. Special thanks to Mashiro Hara and Yuki Watanabe. 00:00 I was wrong 00:49 How Morse Code revolutionized communication 03:57 How barcodes work 10:34 How QR codes store information 18:16 Why damaged QR codes still work 29:54 Why are QR codes so common? 31:21 How safe are QR codes? 32:25 The future of QR codes If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically. https://snatoms.com/ ▀▀▀ References: https://ve42.co/O Images & Video: 1940’s grocery store - H.I.C - https://ve42.co/1940sShop Why Americans Are Obsessed With Peanut Butter via Youtube - https://ve42.co/PeanutButter1 Jif Peanut Butter 90s Commercial (1998) via Youtube - https://ve42.co/PeanutButter2 Vericode Symbol via Youtube - https://ve42.co/VericodeSymbol Oreo introduces Sour Patch Kids cookies via YouTube - https://ve42.co/OreaSour BSE - Changes in Behaviour via YouTube - https://ve42.co/BSE QR Code with Drones | Firefly Drone Show via YouTube - https://ve42.co/DroneQRCode Damaged barcode 1 by christiaangpr via Reddit - https://ve42.co/DamagedBarcode1 Damaged barcode 2, Midcom service group https://ve42.co/DamagedBarcode2 Oskana, G and Petkova, A. (2020 July 1). Testing a nano-barcodes marking technology for identification and protection of the mechanical products, Fig. 1 - https://ve42.co/MatrixCodes NASA Celebrates 40 Years of the Voyager Mission via Nasa.gov - https://ve42.co/Voyager40Yr Apollo footage via Nasa.gov - https://ve42.co/ApolloFootage Snake in a QR code by MattKC via mattkc.com - https://ve42.co/SnakeQR Scratched CD by Ice3yes via Reddit - https://ve42.co/ScratchedCD Alfred Vail Portrait via si.edu - https://ve42.co/AlfredVail Bernard Silver Portrait vai invent.org - https://ve42.co/BernardSilver Norman Joseph Woodland Portrait via usatoday.com https://ve42.co/NormanWoodland Masahiro Hara portrait via denso.com https://ve42.co/MasahiroPhoto Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph patents via Wikipedia: https://ve42.co/TelegraphPatent1 https://ve42.co/TelegraphPatent2 https://ve42.co/TelegraphPatent3 https://ve42.co/TelegraphPatent4 https://ve42.co/TelegraphPatent5 https://ve42.co/TelegraphPatent6 5 needle telegraph via cachesleuth.com- https://ve42.co/NeedleTelegraph ▀▀▀ Special thanks to our Patreon supporters: Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, I. H., Jack Cuprill, John H. Austin, Jr., Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Kirill Shore, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Reed Spilmann, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, TTST, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, gpoly, john kiehl, meg noah, wolfee ▀▀▀ Directed by Sumeet Kulkarni and Derek Muller Written by Sumeet Kulkarni Edited by Peter Nelson and Luke Molloy Animated by David Szakaly, Fabio Albertelli, James Finnemore, Ivy Tello Illustrations by Jakub Misiek, Emma Wright Filmed by Derek Muller Additional Research by Gabriel Bean Produced by Sumeet Kulkarni, Derek Muller, Rob Beasley Spence, Emily Lazard, Tori Brittain, Emily Zhang Thumbnail contributions by Peter Sheppard, Ren Hurley, David Szakaly, Gregor Čavlović Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Story Blocks Music from Epidemic Sound

The single principle that underpins all of physics. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial and get 20% off an annual premium subscription. A massive thank you to Prof. Steven Strogatz for his expertise and enthusiasm. A huge thank you to Prof. Haithem Taha, Prof. Anthony Bloch, Dr. Carl-Fredrik Nyberg Brodda, Dr. Sarah Millholland, and Dr. Andrew Mitchell for all their help with finding the story and getting it right. A special thanks to Dr. Aurèle Adam, Ron Haaksman, Marc Serra Peralta, and everyone at the Delft Makerspace for their help with preparing and performing experiments. 00:00 One rule that replaces all of physics 00:51 The problem of fastest descent 05:09 Fermat's principle 07:17 Bernoulli's solution 10:38 Maupertuis' principle 12:28 Maupertuis attacked and ridiculed 14:01 Euler & Lagrange to the rescue 17:22 The general approach to solving these problems 19:32 Writing the principle into its modern form 23:17 Why the principle works 27:08 Another way to do mechanics 30:19 A “spooky” breakthrough ▀▀▀ Join us on Patreon for early access videos and exclusive bonus content https://ve42.co/PatreonDE Patrons: Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Burt Humburg, Chris Harper, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, I. H., John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Martin, Matthias Wrobel, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, Toni , TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV ▀▀▀ Key references: A fantastic book on the history of the Principle of Least Action: Rojo, A. and Bloch, A. The Principle of Least Action: History and Physics. - https://ve42.co/Bloch2018 Coopersmith, J. (2017). The lazy universe: an introduction to the principle of least action. Oxford University Press. - https://ve42.co/LazyU 3Blue1Brown. The Brachistochrone, with Steven Strogatz via Youtube - https://ve42.co/Brach3B1B Vsauce. The Brachistochrone via Youtube - https://ve42.co/BrachV PBS Space Time. Is ACTION The Most Fundamental Property in Physics? via Youtube - https://ve42.co/PBSAction Full list of references: https://ve42.co/T Images & Video: Voltaire. (1753). Diatribe du Docteur Akakia. - https://ve42.co/DiatribeAkakia Philosophical Transactions cover. via Wikimedia Commons - https://ve42.co/PhilTransImage Kids Fun Science. (Jun 28, 2017). Refraction of Light with a arrow experiment via Youtube - https://ve42.co/RefractionFunSci Physics with Simon Poliakoff. Refraction demonstration with water and laser via Youtube - https://ve42.co/SimonPoliakoff Mercury Transit Across Sun. via Nasa.gov - https://ve42.co/MercTransit ▀▀▀ Directed by Casper Mebius Written by Casper Mebius and Derek Muller Edited by Trenton Oliver Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, Gregor Čavlović, Emma Wright, James Finnemore and David Szakaly Illustrated by Jakub Misiek, Emma Wright, and Maria Gusakovich Filmed by Derek Muller and Casper Mebius Additional research by Gabe Bean, Gregor Čavlović, and Geeta Thakur Produced by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, Rob Beasley Spence, Gabe Bean, Gregor Čavlović, and Tori Brittain Thumbnail contributions by Jakub Misiek, Ren Hurley and Peter Sheppard Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Storyblocks, and NASA SVS Music from Epidemic Sound

How a single phone call from a student helped uncover a flaw that nearly toppled Citicorp. Get an exclusive 15% discount on Saily data plans! Use code veritasium at checkout. Download Saily app or go to https://saily.com/veritasium If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV Note: From construction images of Citicorp, sharp-eyed viewers might see that the mid-V columns are still there. Those columns help prevent buckling of the diagonal and the weight of people on the floor above, but do not take the majority of the gravity load. So we left them out of our diagram to clearly explain the load paths. See page 70 of this source for more details - https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ODFo66-_V7Y9vKANbj53mQ0z20RZ2Uai/view ▀▀▀ 0:00 Why is the citicorp building on stilts? 4:44 How wind load works 7:49 Tuned Mass Dampers 11:17 The Anonymous Student 14:00 Quartering Winds 18:38 What were the odds of collapse? 20:31 How was the citicorp building fixed? 25:40 Hurricane Ella 27:00 TMDs Take Over The World 28:36 Conspiracies and Cover Ups ▀▀▀ A big thank you for the incredible people without whom we couldn't have done this! 🖤 To Michael Greenburg, author of The Great Miscalculation, for his insights that really brought the story and its context to life. He gave us a pre-copy of his upcoming book, and it is fantastic: https://ve42.co/Miscalc To Eric Hines for all his help with the technical details, fact-checking, and making sure we got the engineering right. To Michael J. Vardaro for helping us uncover the details of the story and the resources he provided. To Brock Hedegaard for helping us dive deep into the Citicorp structural analysis. Learn the fundamentals of structural analysis on his brilliant channel: https://www.youtube.com/@StructuresProfH/videos To Michele Barbato from UC Davis for his inputs on the load calculations. https://faculty.engineering.ucdavis.edu/barbato/ To Prof. Chris Letchford who helped us understand the impact of wind on Citicorp's structure. To DongHun Yeo from NIST for discussing his research about wind effects on buildings similar to citicorp: https://ve42.co/WindLoad Finally, to Team Columbia —who built the epic TMD and ran wind tunnel experiments that made this story come alive. This includes the folks at the Mechanical Engineering Teaching Laboratory (Follow all the cool stuff they’re doing: @mechcu, @columbiaengineering or visit https://teachinglab.me/) Amanda Lombardo, Manager of Instructional Laboratories Daniela Durón García, Assistant Manager of Instructional Laboratories Jorge Casas, Machinist And the amazing seniors from the Columbia Space Initiative: (Support their awesome work here: columbiaspace.org/support-us/, Follow them: @columbiaspaceinitiative) Michael Sheehan Claudio Solano Jessica Bolar Kathryn Lampo ▀▀▀ References: Michael M. Greenburg. The Great Miscalculation via. nyupress.org - https://ve42.co/Miscalc Joe Morgenstern. The Fifty-Nine-Story Crisis via. The New Yorker - https://ve42.co/59Crisis National Academy of Engineering. William LeMessurier-The Fifty-Nine-Story Crisis: A Lesson in Professional Behavior - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=um-7IlAdAtg Diane Lee Hartley. Implications of a Major Urban Office Complex: The Scientific, Social and Symbolic Meanings of Citicorp Center via. princeton.edu - https://ve42.co/CitiSymbol Caroline Whitbeck. William LeMessurier: The Fifty-Nine-Story Crisis, A Lesson in Professional Behavior via. Online Ethics - https://ve42.co/BillCrisis Addition References here: https://ve42.co/citiref ▀▀▀ Special thanks to our Patreon supporters: Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, Autodidactic Studios, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Greg Scopel, HydrochloRick, Jon Jamison, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee ▀▀▀ Written and Directed by Sulli Yost Edited by Trenton Oliver Additional Editing by Axel Oliver, James Horsley and Peter Nelson 3D Modeling by Maydelis Anaya Romero Animation by Mike Radjabov, Andrew Neet, Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, and Emma Wright Illustration by Jakub Misiek, Maria Gusakovich and Cainejan Esperanza Filmed by Sulli Yost, Henry van Dyck, Andrew Abballe, Derek Muller Produced by Sulli Yost, Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, Zoe Heron, Rob Beasley Spence and Tori Brittain Additional research by Geeta Thakur Thumbnail contributions by Ren Hurley and Ben Powell Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5, Axiom Images and Storyblocks Music from Epidemic Sound